Hosni Mubarak
Hosni Mubarak (born May 4, 1928) is an Egyptian former politician and military officer who served as President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011, after being forced out of office during the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. Before he entered politics, Mubarak was a career officer in the Egyptian Air Force. He served as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rose to the rank of air chief marshal in 1973. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. He assumed presidency after the assassination of Anwar Sadat. Mubarak's presidency lasted almost thirty years, making him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha, who ruled the country from 1805 to 1848, a reign of 43 years. Mubarak stepped down after 18 days of demonstrations during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned as president and transferred authority to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. On 13 April 2011, a prosecutor ordered Mubarak and both of his sons (Alaa and Gamal) to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power. Mubarak was then ordered to stand trial on charges of negligence for failing to halt the killing of peaceful protesters during the revolution. These trials began on 3 August 2011. On 2 June 2012, an Egyptian court sentenced Mubarak to life imprisonment. After sentencing, he was reported to have suffered a series of health crises. On 13 January 2013, Egypt's Court of Cassation (the nation's high court of appeal) overturned Mubarak's sentence and ordered a retrial. On retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on 9 May 2015 of corruption and given prison sentences. Mubarak was detained in a military hospital and his sons were freed 12 October 2015 by a Cairo court. He was acquitted on 2 March 2017 by Court of Cassation, Egypt's top appeals court. He was released on 24 March 2017. Biography Born in the Nile River delta, Mubarak graduated from the Egyptian military academy at Cairo (1949) and the air academy at Bilbays (1950), receiving advanced flight and bomber training in the Soviet Union. He held command positions in the Egyptian air force and from 1966 to 1969 was director of the air academy. In 1972 President Anwar el-Sadat appointed Mubarak chief commander of the air force, and in this capacity he was credited with the successful performance of the Egyptian air force in the opening days of the war with Israel in October 1973. He was promoted to the rank of air marshal in 1974. In April 1975 Sadat named him vice president, and in subsequent years Mubarak was active in most of the negotiations involving Middle Eastern and Arab policy. He served as the chief mediator in the dispute between Morocco, Algeria, and Mauritania over the future of Western (Spanish) Sahara. Mubarak became president following Sadat’s assassination by Khalid Islambouli on October 6, 1981, the anniversary of the start of the 1973 Egyptian-Israeli war. His years in office were marked by an improvement in Egypt’s relations with the other Arab countries and by a cooling of relations with Israel, especially following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. He reaffirmed Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel (1979) under the Camp David Accords, however, and cultivated good relations with the United States, which remained Egypt’s principal aid donor. In 1987 Mubarak was elected to a second six-year term as president. During the Persian Gulf crisis and war following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990–91, Mubarak led other Arab states in supporting the Saudi decision to invite the aid of a U.S.-led military coalition to recover Kuwait. He also played an important role in mediating the bilateral agreement between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization that was signed in 1993. Reelected president in 1993, Mubarak faced a rise in guerrilla violence and growing unrest among opposition parties, which pressed for democratic electoral reforms (the last free elections in Egypt had been held in 1950). He launched a campaign against Islamic fundamentalists, especially the Islamic Group, which was responsible for a 1997 attack at Luxor that left some 60 foreign tourists dead. In 1995 he escaped an assassination attempt in Ethiopia and in 1999 was slightly wounded after being attacked by a knife-wielding assailant. Throughout, Mubarak continued to press for peace in the Middle East. Running unopposed, he was reelected to a fourth term as president in 1999. In 2005 Mubarak easily won Egypt’s first multicandidate presidential election, which was marred by low voter turnout and allegations of irregularities. In January 2011 thousands of protesters—angered by repression, corruption, and poverty in Egypt—took to the streets, calling for Mubarak to step down as president. Those demonstrations took place shortly after a popular uprising in Tunisia, known as the Jasmine Revolution, forced Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali from power. Mubarak made no public appearances until January 28—the fourth day of clashes between protesters and police—when he gave a speech on Egyptian state television indicating that he intended to remain in office. In the speech he acknowledged the protesters’ demand for political change by announcing that he would dissolve his cabinet and implement new social and economic reforms. Those concessions, however, were dismissed by protesters as a ploy to remain in power and did little to calm the unrest. The following day Mubarak appointed a vice president for the first time in his presidency, choosing Omar Suleiman, the director of the Egyptian General Intelligence Service. On February 1, under pressure from continued protests, Mubarak appeared on Egyptian state television and announced that he would not stand in the presidential election scheduled for September 2011. Under continued pressure to step down immediately, Mubarak made another televised speech on February 10. Although it was widely expected that he would use the address to announce his immediate resignation, he reiterated that he would stay in office until the end of his term, delegating some of his powers to Suleiman. Mubarak promised to institute electoral reforms and vowed to lift Egypt’s emergency law, in place since 1981, when the security situation in Egypt became sufficiently stable. On February 11 Mubarak left Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh, a resort town on the Sinai Peninsula where he maintained a residence. Hours later Suleiman appeared on Egyptian television to announce that Mubarak had stepped down as president, leaving the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, a group of senior military officers, to govern the country. Upon learning of Mubarak’s resignation, crowds at Tahrir Square and other protest sites erupted in celebration. Following Mubarak’s departure, the Egyptian government began to investigate allegations of corruption and abuse of power within the Mubarak regime, questioning and arresting several former officials and business leaders with close ties to Mubarak. Calls for the investigation to focus on Mubarak himself intensified, fueled by reports that the Mubarak family had amassed a fortune worth billions of dollars in overseas accounts. On April 10 the public prosecutor announced that Mubarak and his sons, Alaa and Gamal, would be questioned by investigators. Following the announcement, Mubarak made his first public statements since stepping down as president, denying the accusations of corruption. On April 12, while waiting to be questioned, Mubarak was hospitalized after reportedly suffering a heart attack. Mubarak was held in a hospital in Sharm el-Sheikh after an official medical evaluation concluded that his health was too fragile for him to be transferred to prison in Cairo. In May the Egyptian state media reported that his condition had stabilized, although he needed to be treated for depression. On May 24 the public prosecutor announced that Mubarak would stand trial for ordering the killing of protesters as well as for corruption and abuse of power. On August 3 Mubarak appeared in public for the first time since stepping down, as his trial commenced in Cairo amid heavy security. Although Mubarak, reportedly suffering from poor health, was wheeled into court in a hospital bed, he appeared alert during the hearing, denying all charges against him. In January 2012, prosecutors announced that they would seek the death penalty for Mubarak and several senior security officials accused of carrying out the crackdown. In June 2012 an Egyptian court found Mubarak guilty of complicity in the deaths of demonstrators and sentenced him to life in prison. He was acquitted on charges of corruption. In January 2013 an Egyptian court ordered that Mubarak be retried for killing protesters and for corruption, citing procedural problems with his first trial. The retrial, originally scheduled to begin in April 2013, was postponed when the presiding judge withdrew from the case. In August 2013, less than two months after the ousting of President Mohammed Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood and the establishment of a military-backed interim administration, the Egyptian public prosecutor ordered Mubarak’s release from prison in accordance with regulations prohibiting the imprisonment of criminal suspects for more than two years without a conviction. He was transferred to a military hospital in Cairo, where he remained under guard. Although Mubarak still faced corruption charges and a retrial for killing protesters, many saw the timing of his release, coming amid a bloody crackdown against the Muslim Brotherhood and with Morsi held in indefinite detention, as a sign of Egypt’s return to military authoritarianism. In May 2014 Mubarak was sentenced by an Egyptian court to three years in prison for embezzling public funds; his sons each received a four-year sentence for the same crime. In November 2014 an Egyptian court dismissed charges against Mubarak in the killing of protesters, on the grounds that the court’s jurisdiction had been invalidated by a three-month delay in the prosecutors’ filing of the original indictment against Mubarak in 2011. 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